Hiccups

Etiologies

• CNS
  • Stroke, cerebral AVM, temporal arteritis
  • Encephalitis, meningitis, brain abscess, neurosyphilis
  • Head trauma, intracranial neoplasm, brainstem neoplasm, syringomyelia, hydrocephalus
  • Multiple sclerosis
• Vagus or phrenic nerve
  • Goiter
  • Pharyngitis
  • Laryngitis, hair or foreign-body irritation of tympanic membrane, neck cyst, or other tumor
• Gastrointestinal: gastric distention, gastritis, peptic ulcer disease, pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer, gastric carcinoma, intraabdominal abscess, gallbladder disease, inflammatory bowel disease, hepatitis, aerophagia, esophageal distention, esophagitis, bowel obstruction
• Thoracic: lymphadenopathy, pneumonia, empyema, bronchitis, asthma, pleuritis, aortic aneurysm, mediastinitis, mediastinal tumor, chest trauma, pulmonary embolism
• Cardiovascular: myocardial infarction, pericarditis
• Toxic: alcohol, diabetes mellitus, hypocalcemia, hypocapnia, hyponatremia, uremia
• Mediations: alpha methyldopa, short-acting barbiturates, chemotherapeutic agents (eg, carboplatin), dexamethasone, diazepam
• Postoperative: general anesthesia, intubation (glottis stimulation), neck extension (stretching phrenic nerve roots), gastric distention, traction on viscera
• Other: subphrenic abscess, malaria, tuberculosis, varicella-zoster virus, COVID-19